In honor of the Memorial of Pope St. Gregory the Great, this is my paper written last year regarding sacred music.
Go to one thousand
Catholic churches across the United States today and you will probably hear one
thousand different ideas of what is proper liturgical music. Despite that fact, one of the hallmarks of
the faith is that the spoken aspects of the Mass itself, and indeed all
Liturgy, is the same everywhere. The
Church is universal. How can there be such a large disjunction between the
music and the rest of the Liturgy? Has
it always been this way? Historical
analysis proves that popes from Gregory the Great to Pius X and even to today
have all agreed that Gregorian Chant is the most perfect musical expression of
the Liturgy.
While Gregorian Chant
is a unique aspect of the Roman Catholic Church, as a form of music, chant is
more universal. Virtually all religious
traditions have a type of chant. Each of
these chants have a few common traits.
They are all linked with liturgy, they are vocal and unaccompanied by
instruments, they are monophonic (one voice or no harmony), and the rhythm of
the music is determined by the text rather than text being forced into a set
melody.[1]
Gregorian Chant has an
origin that goes well beyond the myth, and in fact is more important and more
telling than the myth. According to
legend, Pope St. Gregory the Great (r. 590-604) composed or at least compiled
the chant. Gregorian Chant, however, is
too diverse and expansive to have its genesis in one person. Experts agree that it is rather a combination
of the former Roman and Gallican chants and were unified under the Carolingian
dynasty. This was actually an
intelligent political move by Pepin the Short (r. 751-768). The sometimes forgotten member of the dynasty
between his father Charles Martel and son Charlemagne, Pepin arguably had as
important an influence on Western culture by adopting the Roman liturgy and
unifying it with that of his native Gaul.
In this way, he could unify the diverse people under the Carolingian
empire, which ranged from present-day Spain to Germany, and northern Italy to
Denmark. These disparate people needed
to be brought together in some way, and the most obvious answer was the
Mass. A combined chant was aided by the
creation of musical notation around the same time. The newly-formed Gregorian Chant thus became
the music of the Roman Catholic Church, and it suppressed all other Western
chant, save that of Milan.[2]
Gregory the Great did
have some influence on the establishment of the chant that bears his name. He did establish an Ordo of the Mass and
Divine Office that was used for an extended period of time. At least one change remains today: the
placement of the Our Father in the Mass.
He is also credited with starting the schola cantorum, though he may have only heavily supported it. Regardless of his actual involvement with
chant, he was the first pope to place an exceptional emphasis on sacred music. This is an important starting point for an historical
discussion about Gregorian Chant.[3]
Like chant, the parts
of the Mass developed over time. By the fourth
century, there is evidence of the Kyrie sung by a choir, a psalm between the
readings that would become the gradual and may have been sung as a
responsorial, as well as the Sanctus.
Pope Symmachus (r. 498-514) added the Gloria on Sundays and Saints'
days. By the late seventh century, more
had been added, including the Introit, Offertory, and Agnus Dei. Another psalm may have been sung at the
Communion, but there is no evidence of the Alleluia in the West though it had
been notably present in the East. There
is little doubt that the Alleluia was the last of the Propers added to the Mass;
and in fact, early chant books had them grouped together at the end of the
manuscript, and the cantor could choose whichever he wished. The Offertory Antiphon was unusual for a
number of reasons. Unlike other chants
of the Mass, it probably came about simply to cover the actions at the altar
rather than for specific liturgical reasons.
That may explain why there were fewer Offertory Antiphons composed and
that they were rarely tied to specific readings since they would be repeated
fairly often throughout the year. Still,
there is mention of an Offertory chant by St. Augustine in the African church
in the fourth century, but it may not have been frequent in the Roman church
until later.[4]
By the fourteenth
century, use of Gregorian Chant was in decline.
Two main contributing factors explain the change. The first is the proliferation of harmony and
polyphony, or more than one voice.
Polyphony in the West can be traced back at least to Musica enchiriadis in the ninth
century. The second was the extensive
use of the Low Mass, which sometimes was accompanied either by the organ or
even vernacular hymns. It became enough
of an issue that Pope John XXII (1316-1334) in the mid-1320s wrote
Extravagantes communes extolling the preference for Gregorian Chant. He conceded that polyphony could be a useful
tool for worship, but it should not overtake the words of the Mass. He also was concerned that non-chant music
was too complex for the people to hear the words and follow the Liturgy. Unfortunately this bull had little effect due
to the pope's residency as part of the Avignon popes. Enemies of France largely dismissed his
decrees, and Gregorian Chant continued to decline in Germany and Italy in particular.[5]
Two centuries later,
the Council of Trent (1545-1563), that great response to the Protestant
Reformation, became concerned with sacred music along with its other, more
pressing issues. The Council largely
reaffirmed Pope John XXII, restating a preference for Gregorian Chant as most
proper for Liturgy. Prime importance was
the sacred scripture used in the Mass, and chant could most properly support
it. To some extent this was a response
to the increasing use of vernacular hymns in Protestant services. Polyphony was not condemned, and in fact, was
even substantiated by the Council. This
may have been due to a polyphonic Mass performed by Giovanni Pierluigi da
Palestrina (1525-1594) for Pope Pius IV (r. 1559-1565) in the Sistine Chapel on
19 July 1563. It is probably no
coincidence that the Council stated on 3 December 1563, that polyphony was
proper for the Mass so long as it did not distract from the Liturgy, only six
months following the Papal performance.
With this announcement, polyphony only continued to be more popular as
composers expanded their repertoire.[6]
For the next three
hundred years, the use of Gregorian Chant continued to decline despite papal attempts to support its supremacy in the
Liturgy. Pope Urban VIII (r. 1623-1644)
limited those who could print sacred music in an attempt to avoid profane
music. In the following century, Pope
Benedict XIV (r. 1740-1758) wrote an encyclical Annus qui in 1749 in which, among other things, he made a clear
distinction between theatrical and sacred music, especially with regard to
instruments. The organ, flute, lyre, and
certain other instruments were acceptable so long as they were only used to
support voices. Those which gave a
theatrical flair, including tambourines, trumpets, harps, and guitars, were deemed
unacceptable for liturgical use.
Interestingly, he also stated that orchestral music "may be
tolerated as long as it is serious and does not, because of its length, cause
boredom or serious inconvenience to those who are in choir, or who are
celebrating at the altar." Despite
these efforts, Gregorian Chant became nearly non-existent in some parts of the
Roman Catholic Church.[7]
Efforts to restore
chant began in the mid-nineteenth century culminating in the most important
papal legislation regarding sacred music in the early twentieth century. There continued to be a concern for
theatrical pieces under Pope Pius IX (r. 1846-1878). A decree on 20 November 1856 instructed the
exclusion of music that was too lively or exciting. More concern was on the words themselves; all
the words were to be sung without any changes, even one syllable. Like Benedict XIV's proclamation, this decree
once again stated that instrumental music is only tolerated, should be
constrained to merely supporting the words, and should not be too long. Interestingly, there is no specific mention
of chant, though the preference is implied in the ordinances.[8]
More important efforts
regarding the restoration of Gregorian Chant were taking place in the monastery
at Solesmes in France. The abbot,
Prosper Guéranger, wanted to restore chant in the Office and Mass, but he lacked
the resources to do so. Books of Chant
available at the time had been seriously edited, with incorrect melodies and an
intentional lack of melismas. Around
this time, two chant books from the tenth and eleventh centuries were
discovered with more authentic chants having ancient notation. Guéranger charged two monks, Paul Jausions
and Joseph Pothier, with restoring the original Gregorian chants. Their efforts culminated in the printing of
the Liber Gradualis in 1883. Twenty years later, this publication received
support from the pope as the official
form of Gregorian Chant.[9]
This leads to arguably
the most important piece of papal legislation regarding sacred music in the
history of the Church. Pope St. Pius X
(r. 1903-1914) had a long history of interest in sacred music. In 1888, as Bishop of Mantua, he issued a
votum on sacred music. As
cardinal-patriarch of Venice he wrote a pastoral letter in 1894 indicating his
wish for all parishes to sing Gregorian Chant so as to be more in communion
with the Church. One of his primary
concerns was the lack of participation in the Mass by the people, and Gregorian
Chant was most suitable to help the people participate. Only three months after his election as pope,
he promulgated a motu proprio on 22
November 1903 with immensely important implications regarding sacred music.[10]
Much of the wording was
lifted directly from the previous two documents, showing that he had been
contemplating his reforms for fifteen years.
He began by stating that sacred music was used primarily to "increase
the beauty and splendor of the ceremonies of the Church" and "to
clothe the liturgical text" to aid the devotion of the faithful. He listed the three most important
characteristics of sacred music as holiness, beauty, and universality. They are best found in Gregorian Chant. He further says that certain polyphonic
music, in particular that of Palestrina, also holds a high place in the
Liturgy. Pius X admits that some modern
music is suitable as well, though its close connection to secular music should
lead to closer examination. He
especially warns against theatrical music which was prevalent in Italy. One section regards the text, arguing that
since Latin is the language of the Church, it should be the only language used
in the Mass and the Office. Further, the
text is a necessary part of Liturgy, established by Rome, and cannot be changed
in any way. Regarding the singers, the
document states that those parts not sung by the priest should be sung by a
clerical choir. Where that is not
possible, a choir of lay men is acceptable.
Thus, women are not permitted in choirs, as was the long-standing
custom. Further, the men must show
"piety and integrity" with "modest and reverent demeanor during
the service" and they should wear cassock and surplice, as a cleric
would. Regarding instruments, he
acknowledges that while proper chant is unaccompanied, the organ is allowed so
long as it does not overpower the singers and its use is limited. The piano-forte and percussion instruments
are expressly forbidden. Bands may only
be used outside of the Liturgy. Another
important point about liturgical music is that it must be finished before the
action on the altar. The priest should
never have to wait for the music since "it is a very grave abuse, and one
to be altogether condemned, to make the liturgy of sacred functions appear a
secondary matter, and, as it were, the servant of the music." The motu
proprio concludes with instructions on the restoration and dissemination of
Gregorian Chant and the teaching of chant so as to implement these reforms.[11]
It may seem as though
the reforms of Pius X were wide-sweeping, but in fact, they largely restated
the tradition of sacred music passed down over a thousand years by the
Church. Perhaps the only real innovation
from him came from the focus on making sure that the people participated in the
singing in the Mass.[12] This may have been a direct reaction to the
increased preference of the people to pray devotionals during the Mass rather
than taking part in the Liturgy, a problem that would be addressed by later
liturgical reforms.
The motu proprio was accompanied by a few
important resources. Perhaps most
importantly, the Pontifical School of Sacred Music in Rome was established in
1910 to teach proper sacred music. New
Gregorian Chant books were published, including the official Vatican Edition in
1907. Certain publishers, however, tried
to circumvent restrictions by placing an illicit stamp of approval under the motu proprio on their music. As a result, the Society of St. Gregory of
America published a White List of approved music in 1919, 1938, and 1939. More interestingly they also published a
Black List of music not to be used in Liturgy, including the famous Bach/Gounod
Ave Maria, the wedding marches of Mozart and Mendelssohn, certain theatrical
Masses, and songs in English.[13]
Many
Catholics believe that the acceptance of sacred music changed after the Second
Vatican Council. Actually, the popes
after Pius X have reaffirmed his instructions regarding the supremacy of
Gregorian Chant. Pope Paul VI (r.
1963-1978), for instance, sent a collection of Gregorian Chants titled Jubilate Deo to all bishops on 14 April
1974 urging them to have the people learn the music of the Church. Even the documents of the Second Vatican
Council, such as Sacrosanctum Concilium
and Musicam Sacram retained the
primacy of Gregorian Chant. Any changes
that have come about post-Vatican II seem to be brought about by local
Ordinaries, music publishers, or the people themselves.[14]
The history of papal
legislation regarding sacred music is one of remarkable constancy. Since Gregorian Chant was unified during the
Carolingian Renaissance, it has remained the most proper form of music for
Roman Catholic Liturgy. Despite various
threats, from polyphony to the Protestant Reformation to secular music and
changing popular tastes, the popes have consistently reaffirmed the primacy of
Gregorian Chant over any other form of sacred music. The reasons are many but simple. First and foremost, the real foci of Liturgy are
the actions and the words. Gregorian
Chant is best suited to compliment rather than overtake the Liturgy. It is derived from the text with natural
accents and flow based on human speech.
It is the most universal form of sacred music for the Western Church,
and thus can be best appreciated by the many different cultures and languages
within the Church. It has historic
ascendancy as the oldest form of sacred music in the West in a Church that
places special weight on historical importance.
Finally, if the words and actions of the Liturgy have remained
essentially intact for well over one thousand years, should not the music as
well?
The final question then
becomes, how do we reinstate Gregorian Chant in our churches after decades of
neglect? There are three areas in
particular needing reform in this regard.
First, priests and seminarians must be taught Latin and proper Gregorian
Chant. Any implementation of chant in
the Mass must commence with the parts chanted by the priest. If they start, the people will follow. Second, choirs, choir directors, and
liturgists must be taught what the Church actually says about music and the
Liturgy rather than the nebulous "spirit of Vatican II" that many
espouse. This can be aided by the
increased publication of missals with the Ordinary and Propers of the Mass and
limited, appropriate hymns to be only used if necessary. The cessation of popular hymnals would be
another necessary step. The monetary
loss by publishers and composers would be an unfortunate but acceptable
aftereffect. Finally, the people must be
reintroduced to the beauty and proper holiness of Gregorian Chant. Their education will be greatly aided by the
first two steps. Change cannot happen
overnight, and that is why chant must be revived slowly and deliberately. By pushing through what might be some
difficult reforms, the Roman Catholic Church of the twenty-first century may
once again look, and sound, as it did for its first two millennia.
Bibliography
Hayburn,
Robert F. Papal Legislation on Sacred Music: 95 A.D. to 1977 A.D. Harrison, NY: Roman Catholic Books, 1979.
Hiley,
David. Gregorian Chant. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Mytych,
Joseph J. Digest of Church Law On Sacred Music. Toledo: Gregorian Institute of America, 1959.
Saulnier,
Dom Daniel. Gregorian Chant: A Guide to the History and Liturgy. Translated by Mary Berry. Brewster, MA: Paraclete, 2009.
Schaefer,
Edward. Catholic Mass through the Ages: Balancing the Needs of a Worshipping
Church. Chicago: Hillenbrand, 2008.
[1] Edward Schaefer, Catholic Mass through the Ages: Balancing
the Needs of a Worshipping Church (Chicago: Hillenbrand, 2008), 34.
[2] Schaefer, Catholic Music, 37; David Hiley, Gregorian Chant (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 83;
and Dom Daniel Saulnier, Gregorian Chant:
A Guide to the History and Liturgy, trans. Mary Berry (Brewster, MA:
Paraclete, 2009), 4-7.
[3] Hiley, Gregorian Chant, 90-92; and Robert F. Hayburn, Papal Legislation on Sacred Music: 95 A.D. to 1977 A.D., 3-4, 9.
[4] Hiley, Gregorian Chant, 86-87; and Saulnier, Gregorian Chant, 73, 77, 87.
[5] Hayburn, Papal Legislation, 20-22; and Schaefer, Catholic Music, 43-46, 66.
[6] Hayburn, Papal Legislation, 27-30.
[7] Ibid., 72-73, 92, 103-104.
[8] Ibid., 136.
[9] Schaefer, Catholic Music, 110-112.
[10] Hayburn, Papal Legislation, 195-219.
[11] Ibid., 223-231.
[12] Schaefer, Catholic Music, 116.
[13] Hayburn, Papal Legislation, 295; Joseph J. Mytych, Digest of Church Law On Sacred Music (Toledo: Gregorian Institute
of America, 1959), 13; and Schaefer, Catholic
Music, 123-124.
[14] Hayburn, Papal Legislation, 392.
No comments:
Post a Comment